By Dhanpaul Narine
They are largely ignored in Caribbean history. The literature is filled with tomes on slavery and the unspeakable cruelty that occurred for centuries. Then there was indentureship in the Caribbean with Indians, Chinese, and Portuguese taking the place of the ex-slaves. But there was another group that played a significant role in the development of the region. They arrived in thousands as indentured servants, worked alongside the slaves, and experienced brutality that were no less different than that of slavery. This group of indentured servants were known as the poor Irish. They were called ‘redlegs’ due to the intense heat of the tropics. The term was also synonymous with the lower class of the colonial society.
Many of the history books on slavery and indentureship give only a passing glimpse of this population. As Wheelock pointed out, the study of the poor Irish in Barbados is a ‘relatively understudied topic that has not been subjected to close investigation by many historians.’ Sir Hilary Beckles is one of the few historians who has discussed white labour in a black plantation society in Barbados. He argued that Irish labour was temporary but slavery was permanent.
The United Nations’ resolution on slavery in March 2026 opened wounds on the transatlantic slave trade. Despite the brutal and inhumane aspects of slavery, a number of countries either abstained from the reparations vote, or chose to vote against the motion. The big players in the slave trade were Britain, America, Holland, France, Spain, and Portugal, among others. Britain abstained in the vote, although Conservative leader, Kemi Badenoch stated that it should have voted against, since Britain was in the forefront in fighting against the slave trade. But the anti-slavery movement in Britain did not affect national policy during the height of the slave trade.
The United States did not disguise its dependence on slavery for its existence. The Southern States flourished on slave labour, and a Civil War was fought when those States refused to accept Lincoln’s Proclamation. The promise of General Sherman of a horse, and forty acres of land to the ex-slaves, never materialized. In fact, America and Britain compensated slaveowners for their loss as a result of emancipation. There was a period of apprenticeship for an additional five years, after emancipation, that allowed the planters to recoup their expenses. This shows further that the system was designed to benefit the planters and not the ex-slaves.
As is well known, labor was introduced in the Caribbean in the form of indentureship. Gladstone’s Indians arrived in British Guiana in 1838, and in Trinidad in 1845. The cargo brought men and women who crossed the seas to fill the plantations that were vacated by the slaves. It is estimated that from 1838 to 1917 over ten million persons were displaced from India, China and Portugal to the Caribbean, and other places. But where do the poor Irish fit into this picture. They too were an indentured group that arrived in the Caribbean, but unlike the East Indians, the poor Irish worked alongside the slaves in the plantations.
The arrival of the Irish began around 1632. They were in two categories: those that were genuine indentured servants on a contract, while the others were vagrants that were sent to the Caribbean as a punishment. One myth was that the Irish were the original slaves and that they faced more hardships than Blacks who were already on the plantations. The reality was that the legal status of both groups was well defined. The indentured servants had certain rights which were denied to the slave. When their contracts ended, they could return to Ireland, or choose to remain in the colonies. Slaves had no such rights. Their existence was at the whims of the master. The cruelty was unspeakable, and in law, they were property rather than people. The Barbados Slave Code of 1661 defined the Irish as servants and not as slaves.
Richard Ligon’s description of life in Barbados is rather striking. In his 1650 memoir, he described the sugar plantations ‘as stately buildings’ and pointed out that sugar was the fulcrum that determined Barbadian history. It was established that many Irish people were displaced as a result of Oliver Cromwell’s conquest of Ireland. Thousands were stripped of property rights. In a letter to the Speaker of the British Parliament in 1649, Cromwell stated that he considered the poor Irish transportation to Barbados as ‘a righteous judgement of God upon these barbarous wretches.’ Liam McKee points out that, ‘as well as the cost of passage, the indentured servant bound for the sugar plantations could also expect their contract to include some kind of bonus payment, in land, in animals, or in coin.’ During the period 1640 to 1660, Barbados had transitioned from tobacco and cotton cultivation to sugar. Irish indentureship to the island was so popular that it became a verb; people were ‘Barbadosed’ which meant that many were sent against their will to the colony.
The numbers showed that the slave population of Barbados grew from 6,000 persons in 1638 to around 20,000 in 1658, of which 8,000 were Irish indentured servants. But Irish indenture was not only confined to Barbados. The thirty-nine square mile island of Montserrat has Irish names that exist today. As in the other colonies, Montserrat was used a dumping ground for a penal colony by Cromwell. But brisk immigration took place from Cork ports to St. Kitts in the West Indies and from thence to Montserrat. The island was first under British control in 1632 when the Irish arrived there. In 1662, slaves were transported to Montserrat. The French took possession of it in 1664 and 1667 but Montserrat became a British colony again in 1783.
A Census in 1678 showed ‘a vibrant community of 1,900 Irish men women and children. Family names suggest that most came from County Cork, with smaller contingents from Clare, Donegal, Galway, Tipperary, Waterford, Westmeath and Wexford.’ It was estimated that seven out of every ten whites were Irish. One of the reasons for immigration to Montserrat was its remote location and its willingness to allow Catholics to practice their religion freely. According to a priest Fr. Mackin, ‘Montserrat was a haven of religious liberty for Irish Catholics in the New World, before Maryland was a haven for English Catholics.’ It is little wonder that Montserrat was described as the Emerald Isle of the Caribbean.
As in Barbados, some of the Irish worked as indentured servants. In 1768, the number of whites that lived in Montserrat was 2,682 of which 1,644 were bonded. Many who stayed, ‘scraped out a livelihood as tradesmen or small tobacco, cotton or indigo farmers.’ By 1768, slaves had outnumbered the white colonists three to one. The disparity and discontent with the system led to the Montserrat Slave Uprising.
The staging of uprisings against plantation owners was nothing new in the Caribbean. In 1675, the slaveowners of Barbados discovered a plot by slaves to overthrow colonial rule. The Governor, Sir John Atkins, acted with speed. Trials were arranged and thirty-two slaves were executed while others were imprisoned. There were six major revolts during the years 1770 to 1801 in Trinidad. The 1805 Christmas Rebellion was uncovered leading to ‘hangings, executions, dismemberment and burning of key leaders.’
The 1763 Berbice Slave Rebellion in Guyana was led by Cuffy on the Canje River. The 2,500 enslaved were in control for over ten months but the rebellion collapsed because of internal divisions and the arrival of reinforcements by the Dutch. The 1823 Demerara Rebellion suffered a similar fate. A total of 12,000 slaves rebelled on 60 plantations but it was put down by British soldiers. The most famous slave rebellion was in Haiti in 1791 that led to the first independent Black republic. Toussaint Louverture and his army defeated the French and slavery was abolished. Louverture became Governor General for life in 1801 and his leadership paved the way for Dessalines to defeat Napoleon’s forces. The Haitian Revolution also inspired other enslaved peoples, sent shockwaves to planters, and led to severe restrictions on plantations.
A number of other slave rebellions occurred in the Caribbean. There was the Busta Rebellion in Barbados in 1816, revolts in the British Virgin Islands in 1790, 1823 and 1643, the Aponte rebellion in Cuba in 1810, the Tula Slave Revolt in Curacao, the 1784 Balla Slave Rebellion in Dominica, the 1796 Fedon rebellion in Grenada, the 1821 rebellion in Puerto Rico led by Marcos Xiorro, the 1848 rebellion on St. Croix and St. Thomas, the 1795 uprising in St. Lucia that were part of the Brigands War, the Carib Wars in St. Vincent in 1773 and 1795, and a number of revolts in Jamaica.
One of the earliest revolts that involved the Irish and slaves took place in Barbados in 1649. It was driven by food shortages but the uprising was suppressed by the planters. It is also argued that the Irish joined forces with the Maroons in Jamaica to organize hidden settlements. One of the most famous rebellions that is linked to the Irish occurred in Montserrat in 1768. The slaves picked St. Patrick’s Day to revolt against their masters. They figured that in the merriment the slave owners would be distracted. But an Irish woman overheard the plans and alerted the planters.
The authorities hanged nine people including the ringleader Cudjoe. His head was placed in a silk cotton tree for all to see. It became a grim reminder that rebellions could cost slaves their lives. But the people of Montserrat had other ideas. They used the experience of Cudjoe, and others, to celebrate St. Patrick’s Day in style and merriment. In 1985, St. Patrick’s Day became a national holiday on the island with a ten-day celebration with parades, festivities, and lectures. It is probably the only place in the world, outside of Ireland, where such a celebration takes place. But what is unique in the celebrations is that the island has been able to weave Afro-Caribbean history with its African-Irish identity. However, writers such as Howard Fergus have warned that the message of the rebellion appear to be lost in the revelry and partying.
Montserrat has had to deal with natural disasters that has crippled most of the island. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo caused severe damage. In 1995, a volcano erupted for the first time in 350 years that caused thousands to flee the island. Two years later, another volcano erupted that left most of the island uninhabitable and more volcanic damage occurred in 2001 and 2003. Despite the disruptions, the people remained brave, and proud of their ancestry. In 2002, Britain granted citizenship to Montserratians and has helped with the rebuilding in the island.
It is said that a person can go anywhere in Montserrat and he or she wouldn’t be in the wrong place. People can leave their keys in cars and their house doors unlocked. The lost phones are taken to the radio station to be reunited with their owners. Montserrat has been described as a hidden gem for visitors and it was featured in the New York Times’ top 52 destinations for 2025. Apart from its natural beauty, a strong point is its African-Irish heritage. Black Irishmen and women sporting shamrocks and dancing to African drumming presents a unique blend of cultures. And yes, Montserrat stamps visitor’s passports with a green shamrock when they arrive at the island.
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